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NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?

Craft production played a crucial role in the development and sustenance of Early Historic cities. There is ample evidence of craft production in the form of archaeological findings such as pottery, metal objects, beads, textiles, and other objects that were manufactured in these cities.

One of the most important centres of Early Historic craft production was located in the city of Taxila in present-day Pakistan. Taxila was a major centre for the production of high-quality terracotta figurines, copper coins, and metal objects. The city was also famous for its textiles, which were made from cotton and silk.
Another important centre of craft production was located in the city of Mathura, located in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. Mathura was known for its high-quality terracotta figurines and sculptures, which were widely exported to other parts of India and beyond.

Difference Between Harappan Cities and Early Historic Cities

In addition, the types of crafts produced in Early Historic cities were different from those produced in Harappan cities. Harappan cities were known for their highly skilled craftsmanship in pottery, metalworking, and bead-making. Early Historic cities, on the other hand, were known for their production of terracotta figurines, sculptures, and textiles.

Furthermore, Harappan cities were characterized by a highly centralized political system, which facilitated the organization of craft production. In contrast, Early Historic cities were characterized by a more fragmented political system, with different rulers and power centres competing for control. This made it more difficult to organize and control craft production on a large scale.

2. Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.

Mahajanapadas were the 16 great kingdoms or republics that emerged in northern India during the 6th century BCE, following the decline of the Vedic civilization. The term “Mahajanapadas” is derived from the Sanskrit words “Maha” (meaning great) and “Janapada” (meaning country and foothold of a people).

The features of Mahajanapadas are as follows:

The emergence of urban centres: Mahajanapadas were characterized by the emergence of several urban centres, which acted as the centre of political, economic, and social activities. these were Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, and Panchala. These urban centres were fortified and characterized by the presence of a ruling elite.

Republican and Monarchical forms of government: The Mahajanapadas were governed by two forms of government, namely, republican and monarchical. Some Mahajanapadas, such as the Vajji confederacy, were governed by republican forms of government, while others, such as Magadha, were governed by monarchies.

The Emergence of Beauracy and Collective Tax System: Each Mahajanpada had a capital city. which had been protected by fortified. which was security maintained by the bureaucracy that’s why the emergence of bureaucracy in early history. when was the Emergence of trade and commerce and the expansion of agriculture to maintain the administration Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans?

The emergence of writing and literature: Mahajanapadas witnessed the emergence of writing and literature. The Buddhist and Jain texts, as well as the works of scholars such as Panini and Chanakya, were written during this period.

The emergence of trade and commerce: The growth of urban centres and the expansion of agriculture led to the emergence of trade and commerce in the Mahajanapadas. Trade routes were established, and trade relations were established with other kingdoms.

Overall, the emergence of Mahajanapadas marked an important transition in the political, economic, and social history of India. The features of Mahajanapadas had a profound impact on the subsequent development of Indian civilization.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people through various sources such as:

Archaeological remains:- They study the material culture of the period such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and household items to understand the economic and social conditions of ordinary people.

Inscriptions and literature:- These sources provide information about the social and cultural practices of the time.

Paintings and sculptures:- These depict the daily life and activities of common people.

Accounts of foreign travelers:- These give insights into the lives of ordinary people.

By analyzing all these sources, historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people and provide a more complete picture of the past.

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (source 8). Do you notice any similarities and differences?

Source 3 is a Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on a potsherd from Arikamedu, which lists various items that were given as tribute to the Pandyan chief. The list includes items such as pepper, ivory, pearls, cloth, and gold.

Source 8 is an excerpt from the book “The Village Labourer” by J.H. Hammond, which describes the production of goods in the village of Danguna in India during the 19th century. The excerpt mentions items such as cotton cloth, brass pots, earthenware vessels, and bamboo mats.

When comparing the two sources, we can notice some similarities and differences.

Similarities:

Both sources mention the production or exchange of cloth. Source 3 mentions cloth as a tribute item, while Source 8 describes the production of cotton cloth in the village of Danguna.

Both sources mention items made from natural materials, such as bamboo mats in Source 8 and pearls in Source 3.

Differences:

Source 3 lists luxury goods such as gold and ivory, while Source 8 mentions more everyday items like brass pots and earthenware vessels.

The items listed in Source 3 were given as tribute to a chief, while the items mentioned in Source 8 were produced in a village for local use or trade.

The time periods and contexts of the sources are also different, with Source 3 being from an ancient Tamil-Brahmi inscription and Source 8 being from a book about 19th-century village life.

Overall, while there are some similarities in terms of the use of natural materials and the production/exchange of cloth, the differences in the types of items and contexts of the sources highlight the diversity of goods produced and exchanged in different historical periods and regions.

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.

The Mauryan administration was characterized by a strong central government that controlled a vast empire. The main features of the Mauryan administration were:

Centralized government: The Mauryan government was centralized, with the king as the ultimate authority. The king was advised by a council of ministers, which included the chief minister, the treasurer, and the commander-in-chief.

Provincial administration: The empire was divided into provinces or administrative units called Janapadas. Each Janapada was headed by a prince, who was responsible for the administration of the area.

District administration: Each Janapada was further divided into districts or Vishayas, which were administered by officials called Vishayapatis. They were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and supervising the activities of local officials.

Village administration: The lowest unit of administration was the village or Grama, which was governed by a headman called the Gramini. He was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and providing basic services to the villagers.

Taxation: The Mauryan government relied heavily on taxation to fund its administration. The main sources of revenue were land tax, trade tax, and customs duties.

Legal system: The Mauryan legal system was based on the principles of dharma. The king was the ultimate authority in legal matters, but he delegated powers to officials such as the Dharmadhyaksha, who was responsible for the administration of justice.

Public works: The Mauryan government was responsible for the construction of public works such as roads, bridges, and irrigation systems.

The Asokan inscriptions reveal many of these features of the Mauryan administration. For example, the inscriptions mention the appointment of officials such as Rajukas, who were responsible for maintaining law and order, and Dhamma Mahamatras, who were responsible for the propagation of the dharma. The inscriptions also mention the construction of public works such as wells, rest houses, and hospitals. Additionally, the inscriptions emphasize the importance of dharma and the welfare of the people as the main objectives of the Mauryan government.

6. Discuss the main features of the Mauryan administration. Which of these elements ate evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?

The Mauryan administration was characterized by a strong central government that controlled a vast empire. The main features of the Mauryan administration were:

Taxation: The Mauryan government relied heavily on taxation to fund its administration. The main sources of revenue were land tax, trade tax, and customs duties.

Public works: The Mauryan government was responsible for the construction of public works such as roads, bridges, and irrigation systems.

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of the Indians that are not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.

D.C. Sircar’s statement suggests that inscriptions are an important source for understanding various aspects of Indian life, culture, and activities. Inscriptions provide detailed information about the social, economic, political, and religious conditions of the past. They also provide insights into the daily lives of ordinary people and the ruling elites. Epigraphists study inscriptions to reconstruct the history of India and to understand the changes that have taken place over time.

For example, inscriptions have provided information about the various dynasties that ruled India, the political and administrative structures of different regions, and the social and religious beliefs of different communities. They also provide information about economic activities, trade routes, and agricultural practices. Inscriptions have helped in identifying the sources of raw materials used in different industries and the technologies employed by artisans.

Inscriptions have also helped in the study of the evolution of language, literature, and art. They provide information about the development of different scripts, the evolution of languages and dialects, and the spread of literacy. Inscriptions also provide evidence of the patronage of art and architecture by the ruling elites, their religious beliefs and practices, and their contributions to the development of different forms of art.

In conclusion, D.C. Sircar’s statement highlights the immense importance of inscriptions as a source for understanding the history and culture of India. Inscriptions provide detailed and often overlooked information about different aspects of Indian life and activities, making them indispensable sources for historians and other researchers.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.

After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, various regional kingdoms emerged in the post-Mauryan period in India. The notions of kingship that developed in this period were influenced by a range of factors, including political, social, and religious beliefs.

One of the main features of post-Mauryan kingship was the emphasis on the role of the king as a protector of his subjects. The king was seen as a paternalistic figure who was responsible for the welfare of his people. This idea is reflected in the inscriptions of the Satavahanas, who ruled over parts of central and southern India in the early centuries CE.

Another important development was the association of the king with the divine. Many post-Mauryan kings claimed divine status or were identified with gods and goddesses. For example, the Kushanas, who ruled over parts of northern India and Central Asia in the first few centuries CE, claimed descent from the god Shiva.

The concept of dharma, or righteous rule, also became an important element of post-Mauryan kingship. Kings were expected to follow the principles of dharma and rule justly, protecting their subjects from harm and promoting their well-being. This idea is reflected in the inscriptions of the Guptas, who ruled over northern India in the fourth and fifth centuries CE.

Overall, the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period were diverse and multifaceted, reflecting the complex political, social, and religious landscape of ancient India.

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?

The period under consideration saw significant transformations in agricultural practices. The development of irrigation systems, particularly in the Gangetic Plain, led to an increase in the area under cultivation and higher agricultural productivity. The construction of canals and tanks helped to regulate the flow of water and improve soil fertility. The use of iron ploughs and new varieties of crops also contributed to the growth of agriculture. However, the extent of transformation varied across regions and was influenced by factors such as climate, soil, and the availability of water. Despite these changes, traditional practices like shifting cultivation and mixed farming continued in many areas. The role of pastoralism in agriculture also remained significant, especially in regions with poor soil quality.